Attestation (Pengesahan)
Block (Blok)
Canonical chain (Rantaian utama)
Menyimpan semua di satu full node dan membina satu arkib sejarah penuh.
Archive nodes diperlukan jika anda ada pertanyaan seperti baki akaun di dalam sebuah blok.
Data ini diwakili dalam unit terabytes (lebih daripada 20TB untuk Geth), menjadikan archive nodes kurang menarik bagi kebanyakan pengguna tetapi sangat berguna untuk service seperti meneroka blok, vendor dompet, dan analisa rantaian.
Syncing clients dalam apa-apa mode selain daripada archive akan mengakibatkan pruned blockchain data. Ini bermakna mode lain tiada arkib sejarah penuh tetapi full node boleh membinanya jikalau diminta.
Archive nodes tidak diperlukan untuk terlibat dengan pengesahan blok dan secara teori ia boleh membina semula daripada genesis.
Undi by daripada validators yang setuju dengan kesahihan oleh sebuah block (blok). Pada masa yang tertentu, setiap validator bertanggungjawab untuk menyiarkan pelbagai pengesahan yang secara rasmi mengistiharkan pandangan semasa validator's terhadap rantaian, ini termasuk final checkpoint terakhir dan head of the chain semasa.
Setiap validator yang aktif membuat satu pengesahan setiap epoch (~6.5 minutes), mengandungi komponen yang berikut:
Salah satu komponen penting berkaitan dengan keberkesanan ialah undi chain head. Ini merupakan undi dibuat validator bahawanya percaya blok itu adalah blok semasa dan sahih di rantaian pada masa pengesahan dibuat. Struktur undi chain head mengandungi komponen yang berikut:
Slot - Definasi dimana validator percaya chain head semasa ialah apa.
Hash - Definasi apa validator percaya chain head semasa ialah apa.
Kombinasi yang unik ini tentukan satu titik pada rantaian. Dengan mengabungkan secukupnya undi chain head rangkaian Ethereum mencapai konsesi keadaan rantaian.
Source (ethereum.org) ↗ Source (Attestant) ↗
Walaupun data pada setiap attestation adalah kecil, ia mengunung cepat kepada berpuluh ribu validators. Memandangkan data ini akan disimpan selamanya pada rantaian, minimizing memainkan peranan yang sangat penting. Ini dilakukan melalui proses yang dikenali sebagai attestation aggregation.
Aggregation mengambil pelbagai attestations yang telah dipilih untuk mengundi dengan committee yang sama bagi chain head vote, dan undi muktamad, selepas itu mencantumkan mereka kepada single aggregate attestation.
Satu aggregate attestation berbeza dalam dua cara dengan satu simple attestation. Yang pertama, ia mempunyai pelbagai validators disenarai. Yang kedua, the signature is an aggregate signature made from the signatures of the matching simple attestations. Aggregate attestations adalah sangat efisien untuk disimpan, tetapi mengandungi tambahan komunikasi dan beban komputasi.
Jika setiap validator diwajibkan aggregate semua attestations ia akan menyebabkan rangkaian segera terlebih beban dengan komunikasi yang diperlukan untuk hantar setiap attestation kepada setiap validator. Perkara yang sama, jika aggregating adalah pilihan validators tidak akan bazirkan sumber untuk membuat demikian. Oleh itu, satu subset validators dipilih oleh rangkaian untuk menjalankan tugas aggregation duties. Ini memanfaatkan jikalau tugas dilakukan dengan baik, kerana aggregate attestations dengan validators yang banyak mempunyai lebih kebarangkalian disertakan dalam rantaian menyebabkan validator juga lebih kebarangkalian menerima ganjaran.
Validators yang menjalankan tugas aggregation process dipanggil aggregators.
Satu bahagian penting tugas penting beacon chain ialah menyimpan dan menguruskan registry of validators – senarai perserta yang bertanggunjawab untuk mengoperasikan Ethereum Proof of Stake (PoS) sistem.
Senarai ini digunakan untuk:
Tugaskan validators tugas mereka.
Finalizes checkpoints.
Melaksanakan protokol level random number generation (RNG).
Kemajuan beacon chain.
Undi pada head of the chain untuk fork choice.
Satu blok ialah bundel unit informasi yang terdiri daripada satu senarai transaksi dan maklumat konsesi. Blok dicadangkan oleh Proof of Stake (PoS) validators, dimana ia dikongsi seluruh rangkaian melalui peer-to-peer, ia juga boleh disahkan oleh nodes yang lain. Peraturan konsesi Consensus rules govern mengawal apa di dalam blok yang sah, dan jikalau terdapat blok yang tidak sah ia akan diabaikan oleh rangkaian. Susun catur blok dan transaksi sebegitu mencipta rantaian yang akhirnya menwakili keadaan semasa rangkaian.
Satu validator dipilih oleh Beacon Chain untuk mencadangkan block yang seterusnya. Hanya ada satu blok yang sah untuk setiap slot.
Blok dicadangkan oleh validator.
Validators sedang menyalurkan data.
Pencadang tidak mencadangkan blok pada masa yang ditentukan, oleh itu blok missed/skipped.
Untuk memahami, mari kita tengok penerangan di bawah "1, 2, 3, ... ,9" mewakili slots.
Validator di slot 1 mencadangkan the block “a”.
Validator at slot 2 mencadangkan “b”.
Slot 4 dilangkau kerana tidak mencadangkan blok (e.g.: offline).
Di slot 5/6 a fork occurs: Validator(5) mencadangkan blok, tetapi validator(6) tidak menerima data tersebut (e.g.: the block didn’t reach them fast enough). Oleh itu Validator(6) mencadangkan bloknya decent informasi yang paling baru daripada validator(3).
The fork choice rule ↗ ialah kuncinya - Ia memutuskan mana satu antara dua rangkaian itu ialah canonical one.
The canonical chain ialah rantaian yang dipersutujui untuk menjadi 'main' chain dan bukan fork.
Blok terkini yang diterima oleh validator. Ini tidak bermakna ia adalah head of the canonical chain.
Beacon Chain menpunyai tempo dibahagikan kepada slots (12 seconds) dan epochs (32 slots). Slot pertama disetiap epoch ialah checkpoint. Apabila ada supermajority validators attests kepada pautan diantara dua checkpoints, ia boleh dijustifikasi dan apabila salah satu checkpoint dijustifikasi berada di atas, ia boleh finalized(dimuktamadkan).
Satu pelaksanaan perisian Ethereum that yang verifikasi transaksi di dalam sebuah blok. Ia terdiri daripada consensus layer clients atau execution layer clients. Setiap validator memerlukan kedua-dua execution layer client dan consensus layer client.
Satu kumpulan terdiri sekurang-kurangnya 128 validators ditugaskan untuk mengesahkan blok di setiap slot. Salah satu validators di dalam committee ialah aggregator, bertanggungjwab untuk menagregatkan signatures kepada validators lain di dalam committee yang bersetuju untuk attestation. Tidak bersamaan dengan sync committees.
Ethereum's consensus layer ialah rangkaian consensus clients.
Deposit contract ialah gateway kepada Ethereum Proof of Stake (PoS) dan dikendali melalui smart contract di Ethereum. Smart contract tersebut menerima apa-apa transaksi dengan jumlah minima 1 ETH dan input data sah. Ethereum beacon nodes mendengar deposit contract tersebut dan mengunakan input data untuk kredit ke setiap validator.
Purata masa diperlukan untuk validator's attestations dimasukkan kepada rangkaian.
Check out our page explaining validator effectiveness in more detail
1 Epoch = 32 Slot Mewakili 32 slot (12 saat) dan mengambil lebih kurang 6.4 minit. Epochs memainkan peranan yang penting untuk validator queue dan finality.
Ethereum's execution layer rangkaian execution clients.
Jikalau terdapat tiga kumpulan pada Ethereum Proof of Stake (PoS) sekurang-kurang dua daripada tiga kumpulan tersebut haruslah berlaku jujur, apabila terdapat dua epochs bertanding dan satu pertiga daripada kumpulan validators memutuskan untuk berniat jahat, mereka akan menerima penalti. Validators yang jujur akan diberi ganjaran.
Untuk menentukan jikalau satu epoch telah dimuktamadkan, validators perlu bersetuju untuk dua epochs terbaru sekaligus berturut-turut, selepas itu semua Epochs sebelumnya boleh dikira sebagai muktamad.
Jikalau kurang daripada 66.6% jumlah keseluruhan undi (the participation rate) di dalam sesebuah epoch, epoch itu tidak boleh justified (dijustifikasi). Seperti penjelasan di "Finalization", tiga three justified epochs berturut-turut diperlukan untuk mencapai finality. Selagi rangkaian tidak mencapai keadaan ini ia akan mempunyai isu finality.
Semasa finality issues, validator entry queue akan terhenti dan validators baru tidak akan dapat sertai rangkaian, tetapi, inactive validators tidak aktif yang kurang daripada 16 ETH akan dikeluarkan daripada rangkaian. Ini menjadikan rangkaian lebih stabil dan penyertaan lebih tinggi, juga membenarkan rantaian itu akhirnya dimuktamadkan.
Satu perubahan protokol yang menyebabkan kelahiran satu rantai alternatif atau kejadian berlaku dua laluan blok. Sila baca hard fork
Menyimpan dan mengekalkan data penuh rantaian blok pada disk. It serves blockchain data upon request and helps support the network by participating in block validation and by verifying all blocks and states. All states can be derived from a Full node.
The first block in a blockchain, used to initialize a particular network and its cryptocurrency.
A hard fork occurs when an update is being pushed to the Ethereum network and the new version of the software forks from the old version. Usually requires operators to update their validator software to stay on the correct side of the fork. Also see fork
The validator has made a timely vote for the correct head block.
If the Beacon Chain has gone more than four epochs without finalizing, an emergency protocol called the "inactivity leak" is activated. The ultimate aim of the inactivity leak is to create the conditions required for the chain to recover finality. Finality requires a 2/3 majority of the total staked ether to agree on source and target checkpoints. If validators representing more than 1/3 of the total validators go offline or fail to submit correct attestations then it is not possible for a 2/3 supermajority to finalize checkpoints. The inactivity leak lets the stake belonging to the inactive validators gradually bleed away until they control less than 1/3 of the total stake, allowing the remaining active validators finalize the chain. However large the pool of inactive validators, the remaining active validators will eventually control >2/3 of the stake. The loss of stake is a strong incentive for inactive validators to reactivate as soon as possible!
The inclusion distance of a slot is the difference between the slot in which an attestation is made and the lowest slot number of the block in which the attestation is included. For example, an attestation made in slot s and included in the block at slot s + 1 has an inclusion distance of 1. If instead the attestation was included in the block at slot s + 5 the inclusion distance would be 5.
The value of an attestation to the Ethereum network is dependent on its inclusion distance, with a low inclusion distance being preferable. This is because the sooner the information is presented to the network, the more useful it is.
To reflect the relative value of an attestation, the reward given to a validator for attesting is scaled according to the inclusion distance. Specifically, the reward is multiplied by 1/d, where d is the inclusion distance.
The Input data, also called the deposit data, is a user generated, 842 long sequence of characters. It represents the validator public key and the withdrawal public key, which were signed with by the validator private key. The input data needs to be added to the transaction to the deposit contract in order to get identified by the beacon-chain.
More info about the deposit process
66.6% of the total validators need to attest in favour of a block's inclusion in the canonical chain. This condition upgrades the block to "justified". Justified blocks are unlikely to be reverted, but they can be under certain conditions.
When another block is justified on top of a justified block, it is upgraded to "finalized". Finalizing a block is a commitment to include the block in the canonical chain.
An Ethereum client that does not store a local copy of the blockchain, or validate blocks and transactions. It offers the functions of a wallet and can create and broadcast transactions.
MEV or "maximal extractable value", is a controversial topic. Node operators can extract MEV by accepting blocks built by "searchers", via a small side program called "mev-boost ↗" by Flashbots. In this case, the Consensus Layer client such as Nimbus, Teku, etc. will, when asked to procure a block to propose, get blocks from MEV relays via mev-boost and from the Execution Layer client such as Besu, Geth, etc. and then choose whichever block from the relay pays best. The Execution Layer does not currently communicate its expected payout and would only be chosen when the relay offers no block. For this, the relay has to be trusted to deliver valid blocks.
Rewards from MEV are paid to the same suggested fee recipient address as priority fees.
When an Ethereum node receives a transaction, it is not instantly added to a block. The transaction is held in a waiting area or a buffer zone.
The transaction goes from a number of levels of verification such as it checks whether the output is greater than the input, whether the signature is valid or not, etc., and then only it is added to a block. The transaction is not added to a block if it fails any of these validations. The role of a mempool comes while a transaction is going through these checks. It is simply kept in this waiting area or a mempool. As soon as the transaction confirms, it is removed from the mempool and added to a block. Mempool is not a master reference shared universally by all nodes. There’s no “one” mempool. This means each node configures its own rules for the node’s mempool. In fact, a node can be the first to receive a transaction but it is possible that it might not have propagated the transaction to the rest of the network.
Any instance of Ethereum client software that is connected to other computers also running Ethereum software, forming a network. A node doesn’t necessarily need a validator but a validator requires a node. Running a node by itself does not generate any revenue but does contribute to the robustness of the network.
A person who maintains a validator
The participation rate is the percentage of validators that are online and performing their duties.
If the validator set is 1,000 validators, and 250 validators are offline or rarely making proposals or attestations, then it could be estimated that the participation rate is 75%.
Other nodes running Ethereum clients that connect to each other over a peer-to-peer network. Communication between peers is how the Ethereum network remains decentralized as there is no single point of failure.
Almost all transaction on Ethereum set a priority fee ↗ to incentivize block proposers to include the transaction as a higher priority than others. The higher the fee relative to other transactions currently waiting in the mempool This fee is paid to the block proposer. All of the priority fees in a block are aggregated and paid in a single state change directly to the suggested fee recipient set by the block proposer. This address could be a hardware wallet, a software wallet, or even a multi-sig contract.
A secret number that allows Ethereum users to prove ownership of an account or contracts, by producing a digital signature.
A method by which a cryptocurrency blockchain protocol aims to achieve distributed consensus. PoS asks users to prove ownership of a certain amount of cryptocurrency (their "stake" in the network) in order to be able to participate in the validation of transactions.
A number, derived via a one-way function from a private key, which can be shared publicly and used by anyone to verify a digital signature made with the corresponding private key.
Demonstrating cryptographically that a message or transaction was approved by the holder of a specific private key).
If your validator commits a slashable offense it will be force exited from the validator pool and will have ETH deducted depending on the circumstances of the event. Typically, this will be 1-2 ETH but could be significantly more ↗.
This is not something to be overly worried about, there are simple steps you can take to make sure that you don't invoke a slashing event.
There are three ways a validator can be slashed, all of which amount to the dishonest proposal or attestation of blocks.
Double voting: Signing two different attestations in one epoch.
Surround votes: Attesting to a block that "surrounds" another one (effectively changing history).
The slasher is its own entity but requires a beacon-node to receive attestations. To find malicious activity by validators, the slashers iterate through all received attestations until a slashable offense has been found. Found slashings are broadcasted to the network and the next block proposer adds the proof to the block. The block proposer receives a reward for slashing the malicious validator. However, the whistleblower (Slasher) does not receive a reward.
32 Slots = 1 Epoch A time period of 12 seconds in which a randomly chosen validator has time to propose a block. The total number of validators is split up in committees and one or more individual committees are responsible to attest to each slot. One validator from the committee will be chosen to be the aggregator, while the other 127 validators are attesting. After each Epoch, the validators are mixed and merged to new committees. Each slot may or may not have a block in it as a validatory could miss their proposal (e.g. they may be offline or submit their block too late). There is a minimum of 128 validators per committee.
An operator who runs a validator on the Ethereum network without a protocol between their validator and the Beaconchain
The validator has made a timely vote for the correct source checkpoint.
Someone who has deposited ETH into a validator to secure the network. This can be someone who runs a validator (an operator) or someone who deposited their ETH into a pool, where someone else is the operator of the validator.
A command-line tool used to generate validator keys and deposit data files.
The fee recipient is an Ethereum address nominated by a Beacon Chain validator to receive tips from user transactions and MEV.
A sync committee is a randomly selected group of validators that refresh every ~27 hours. Their purpose is to add their signatures to valid block headers. Sync committees allow light clients to keep track of the head of the blockchain without needing to access the entire validator set. Occurs every 2 years on average, however, there can be "dry spells" multiple times longer than the average without being given one. So if your validator is selected... congratulations! 🥳
The validator has made a timely vote for the correct target checkpoint.
A node in a Proof of Stake (Pos) system responsible for storing data, processing transactions, and adding new blocks to the blockchain. To activate validator software, you need to be able to stake 32 ETH. A validator's job is to propose blocks and sign attestations. It has to be online for at least 50% of the time in order to have positive returns. A validator is run by an operator (a human), on hardware (a computer) and is paired with a node (many thousand validators can run on one node).
Refers to pending validators. The deposit has been recognized by the Beacon Chain at the timestamp of “Eligible for activation”. If there is a queue of pending validators ↗, an estimated timestamp for activation is calculated.
Every validator receives a unique index based on when they are added from the validator queue.
The current balance is the amount of ETH held by the validator as of now. The effective Balance represents a value calculated by the current balance. It is used to determine the size of a reward or penalty a validator receives. The effective balance can never be higher than 32 ETH.
In order to increase the effective balance, the validator requires “effective balance + 1.25 ETH”. In other words, if the effective balance is 20 ETH, a current balance of 21.25 ETH is required in order to have an effective balance of 21 ETH. The effective balance will adjust once it drops by 0.25 below the threshold as seen in the examples above.
Here are examples of how the effective balance changes:
If the Current balance is 32.00 ETH – the Effective balance is 32.00 ETH.
If the Current balance dropped from 22 ETH to 21.76 ETH – Effective balance will be 22.00 ETH.
If the Current balance increases to 22.25 and the effective balance is 21 ETH, the effective balance will increase to 22 ETH.
32 ETH has been deposited to the ETH1 deposit-contract and this state will be kept for around 7 hours. This offers security in case the Ethereum chain gets attacked.
Waiting for activation on the Beacon Chain.
Before validators enter the validator queue, they need to be voted in by other active validators. This occurs every 4 hours.
Currently attesting and proposing blocks.
The validator will stay active until:
Its balance drops below 16 ETH (ejected).
Voluntary exit.
It gets slashed.
The Validator has been malicious and will be slashed and kicked out of the system.
A Penalty is a negative reward (e.g. for going offline). A Slashing is a large penalty (≥ 1/32 of balance at stake) and a forceful exit ... . - Justin Drake
Ejected: The validator balance fell below a threshold and was kicked out by the network.
Exited: Voluntary exit, the withdrawal key holder has the ability to withdraw the current balance of the corresponding validator balance.
The number of currently active validators securing the Ethereum network. The current validator pool can be seen here ↗.
The validator queue is a first-in-first-out queue for activating and exiting validators on the Beacon Chain.
Until 327680 active validators in the network, 4 validators can be activated per epoch. For every (4 * 16384) = 65536 active validators, the validator activation rate goes up by one.
5 validators per epoch requires 327680 active validators, allowing 1125 validators per day.
6 validators per epoch requires 393216 active validators, allowing 1350 validators per day.
7 validators per epoch requires 458752 active validators, allowing 1575 validators per day.
8 validators per epoch requires 524288 active validators, allowing 1800 validators per day.
9 validators per epoch requires 589824 active validators, allowing 2025 validators per day.
10 validators per epoch requires 655360 active validators, allowing 2200 validators per day.
Amount of activations scales with the amount of active validators and the limit is the active validator set divided by 64.
Exiting validators works in the same way, with the amount of validators that can exit the Beacon Chain per day rate limited to preserve the stability of the network.
The Seed Phrase or Mnemonic is a set of words (usually 12, 18 or 24 words long) used to generate your validator keys. Your mnemonic is the backup for your validator keys and will be the ONLY way to withdraw your ETH when the time comes and no one can help you recover your mnemonic if you lose it.
An address that can be optionally set when creating a validator key that will be used to withdraw staked ETH. If this address is not set at the time of key creation it can be set at the time of withdrawal instead. For more information about setting the withdrawal address on key creation, see our FAQ answer.
| Component | Description |
|---|---|
Committee
A bitlist of validators where the position maps to the validator index in their committee. The value (0/1) indicates whether the validator signed the data (i.e. whether they are active and agree with the block proposer).
Slot
The slot number that the attestation references.
Index
A number that identifies which committee the validator belongs to in a given slot.
Chain head vote
(beacon_block_root)
The root hash of the block the validator sees at the head of the chain (the result of applying the fork-choice algorithm).
Source
Part of the finality vote indicating what the validators see as the most recently justified block.
Target
Part of the finality vote indicating what the validators see as the first block in the current epoch.
Signature
A BLS signature that aggregates the signatures of individual validators.